Comparative Effects of Natural and Alternative Ripening Inducers on the Nutritional Qualities of Plantain Flours
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.70851/jfines.2026.3(1).46.57Keywords:
Artificial ripening inducers, Phytochemicals, Antioxidants, Reduced sugars, Calcium carbideAbstract
This study was aimed at comparing the effects of natural and alternative ripening agents, namely natural ripening, calcium carbide, cassava peel, and unripe wild mango, on the nutritional attributes of plantain (Musa paradisiaca) under a completely randomized design. All the nutritional parameters studied were significantly different (p < 0.05). Natural ripened plantain flour (NRPF) sample exhibited the highest proximate values in terms of moisture (4.53%), crude fat (6.18%), crude fibre (2.85%), crude protein (5.91%), and ash (4.17%), while the peak carbohydrate by difference (84.42%) was obtained in calcium carbide–treated plantain flour (CCTPF) sample. Potassium concentration was highest (76.38 mg/100g) in cassava peel–treated plantain flour (CPTPF) sample, lowest in CCTPF sample (49.20 mg/100g) whereas the peak concentration of calcium (64.63 mg/100g) was obtained in CCTPF sample. The highest sugar concentrations of sucrose (82.48 g/100g), fructose (93.50 g/100g), and glucose (84.22 g/100g) were obtained in CPTPF, while the lowest sucrose content (74.88 g/100g), and highest phytochemical levels in terms of phytate (5.94 mg/100 g), oxalate (15.69 mg/100g), tannins (0.58 mg100/g), and phytic acid (1.67 mg/100 g) were exhibited by CCTPF sample. The scavenging potentials of DPPH, flavonoids and total phenols as antioxidants were most prominent in the NRPF sample, and least prominent in CCTPF sample. Sensory attributes of the samples ranked in the descending order: NRPF > unripe mango-treated plantain flour (UMTPF) > CPTPF > CCTPF in terms of aroma, taste, chewiness, firmness greasiness and general acceptability. In conclusion, natural and bio-based ripening methods preserved the nutritional qualities of the samples studied whereas calcium carbide, as an artificial ripening inducer, negatively degraded the nutritional qualities.
References
Abou-Arab A.A., & Abu-Salem F.M. (2017), Nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of banana peels as influenced by microwave drying methods, International Journal of Nutrition. Food Engineering. 11, 845-852.
Adewole, O.A., Jolayemi, O.S., Ayo-Omogie, H.N., & Badejo, A.A. (2025) Development and techno-functional characterization of gluten-free flour from rice, Cardaba banana, and pigeon-pea, Journal of Future Foods.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfutfo.2024.04.011
Adeyeye, S.A.O., & Adebayo, O.T. (2022). Natural ethylene-generating agents as alternative fruit ripening tools: A review. Journal of Postharvest Technology, 10(3), 45–55.
Agoreyo, F.O., Omoregie, E.S., & Eze, G.I. (2021). Comparative study of calcium carbide-ripened and naturally ripened plantain on biochemical and histopathological parameters. Nigerian Journal of Basic and Applied Science, 29(1), 47–55.
Akinyemi, S.O., Adeyemi, O.A., & Alamu, E.O. (2020). Effect of ripening methods on sugar profile and physicochemical properties of banana and plantain. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 44(5), e13189. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13189
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (2016). Official methods of analysis of AOAC International (20th ed.). AOAC International.
Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) (2019). Official Methods of Analysis, 21st Edition. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington, D.C.
Badejo, A.A., Osunlakin, A.P., Famakinwa, A., Idowu, A.O., & Fagbemi, T.N. (2017). Analyses of dietary fibre contents, antioxidant composition, functional and pasting properties of plantain and Moringa oleifera composite flour blends. Cogent Food and Agriculture, 3, 1278871
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2017.1278871
Chattopadhyay, A., Dutta, S., & Raychaudhuri, U. (2021). Impact of ripening agents on the quality attributes of fruits: A review. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 58(2), 425–438. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04526-1
Chondrou, T., Fotsis, T., & Kyratso, V. (2024). Dietary phytic acid, dephytinization, and phytase: implications for iron and zinc bioavailability. Nutrients, 16(23), 4069. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16234069
Chua, M. F., Youbee, L., Oudthachit, S., Khanthavong, P., Veneklaas, E. J., & Malik, A. I. (2020). Potassium Fertilisation Is Required to Sustain Cassava Yield and Soil Fertility. Agronomy, 10(8), 1103. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10081103
Deshi, P. (2024). Safety evaluation of artificial fruit ripening agents: nutritional and toxicological considerations. Journal of Food Quality and Safety, 18(1), 112–123.
Ekanem, A. M., Sylvanus, W. N., Asanana, Q. E., Akpabio, I.-O. I., Clement, E. I., Okpara, C. K., & George, K. E. (2021). Fruit Ripening Methods and Knowledge of Health Effect of Use of Calcium Carbide in Ripening Fruits among Fruit Sellers in Uyo, Nigeria. Journal of Advances in Medicine and Medical Research, 33(21), 72–83. https://doi.org/10.9734/jammr/2021/v33i2131135
FAO (2022). Plantain and banana in West Africa: Production trends and food systems impact. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org
Gandhi, S., Sharma, M., and Bhatnagar, B. (2016). Comparative study on the ripening ability of banana by artificial ripening agent (calcium carbide) and natural ripening agents. Indian Journal of Nutrition, 1(3), 5.
Gbakon, S.A., Ubwa, T.S., Ahilem, U.J., Obochi, O.G., Nwannadi, I.A., & Yusufu, M.I. (2018). Calcium Carbide Treatment on Some Physiochemical Characteristics of Broken and Mummy Mango Fruits. American Journal of Food Technology, 13(1):23-31.
Gibson, R.S., Bailey, K.B., Gibbs, M., & Ferguson, E.L. (2010). A review of phytate, iron, zinc, and calcium concentrations in plant-based complementary foods used in low-income countries and implications for bioavailability. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 31(2 Suppl), S134–S146.
https://doi.org/10.1177/15648265100312S206
Gibson, R.S., & Ferguson, E.L. (2018). Implications of phytate in plant-based diets for iron and zinc bioavailability. Nutrition Reviews, 76(11), 793–805. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy051
Haug, W., & Lantzsch, H. J. (1983). Sensitive method for the rapid determination of phytate in cereals and cereal products. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 34(12), 1423–1426.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.2740341217
Igbinaduwa, P.O., Okeke, U.B., Dike, K.C., &. Olohigbe, A.E. (2022). Effect of calcium carbide induced ripening on the vitamin C and mineral composition of banana (Musa acuminata) and papaya (Carica papaya) fruits sourced from Benin-City, Nigeria. West African Journal of Pharmacу (2022) 33 (1) 92-98
Irtwange, S.V., Onuche, C.J., & Abah, E.O. (2023). Postharvest losses and artificial ripening of fruits in tropical Africa: Challenges and mitigation strategies. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 18(4), 104–115.
Islam, M.N., Rahman, M.M., & Ahmed, K. (2020). Natural and artificial ripening of banana: Effects on quality and biochemical composition. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research, 3(2), 104–113. https://doi.org/10.26502/jfsnr.2642-11000045
Khawas, P., Deka, S.C., & Sethi, V. (2016). Physicochemical and biochemical changes during banana (Musa sapientum L.) ripening. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 53(4), 2556–2564. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-016-2237-3
Kumar, R., Mishra, D.S., & Chakraborty, S. (2017). Effects of calcium carbide and ethephon on ripening and biochemical changes in mango (Mangifera indica L.). International Journal of Food Science, 2017, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/2436925
Lee, S. K., & Kader, A.A. (2000). Preharvest and postharvest factors influencing vitamin C content of horticultural crops. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 20(3), 207–220. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-5214(00)00133-2
Maduwanthi, S.D.T., & Marapana, R.A.U.J. (2019). Induced ripening agents and their effect on fruit quality: A review. Food Reviews International, 35(6), 541–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2018.1527371
Medoua, G.N., Mbome, I.L., Agbor-Egbe, T. and Mbofung, H. (2007). Influence of fermentation on some quality characteristics of trifoliate yam (Dioscorea dumetorum) hardened tubers. Food Chemistry, 107(3):1180-1186.
Meilgaard, M., Civille, G.V., & Carr, B.T. (2007). Sensory Evaluation Techniques (4th ed.). CRC Press.
Miller, J.C., Haberer, D., & Cohn, J.S. (2018). Fructose metabolism and implications for human health. Nutrients, 10(6), 653. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10060653
Mokhtar, M., Bouamar, S., & Saidi, S. (2022). Relationship between phenolic content and antioxidant activity of fruit extracts: A review. Journal of Food Quality, 2022, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/5436710
Nielsen, S.S. (2017). Food analysis (5th ed.). Springer. (Chapters on carbohydrate extraction and HPLC-RID of sugars).
Odebode, S.O. (2021). Nutritional and economic importance of plantain in Nigerian rural communities. African Journal of Food Science, 15(6), 210–219.
Ojo, M.A., Olayemi, O.O., & Oluwamukomi, M.O. (2022). Tannins in foods: Nutritional implications and processing effects. Foods, 11(7), 988. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11070988
Okeke, E.S. (2022). The use of calcium carbide in food and fruit ripening: a review of nutritional and toxicological issues. Food Chemistry.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2022.153112
Oko, A.O., Eluu, S.C., Ehihia, L.U., Nnamchi, O., Ngele K., Oluwole, A.O., Ebem E.C., Okorie, J.M., & Onyia O.F. (2018). Calcium Carbide in Ripening of Plantains and Bananas: Effects on Protein, Selected Vitamins and Mineral Contents, Archives of Biological Sciences, 14(2):230-241
Okonkwo, J.N., Nwosu, C.D., & Ezeanyika, L.U.S. (2020). Evaluation of cassava effluent as a ripening agent for banana and plantain. Nigerian Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, 35(2), 89–96.
Okorie, A.U., & Onochie, C.C. (2018). Effect of unripe wild mango as a ripening agent. Nigerian Journal of Agriculture, Food and Environment, 14(3), 45–50.
Okorie, A.U., Nwachukwu, A.M., and Mba, C.E. (2023). Unripe wild mango pulp as a natural ripening agent: Impact on proximate and sensory qualities of Musa spp. West African Journal of Food and Nutrition, 19(2), 34–41.
Okoye, J.N., Njoku, N.E., & Okeke, C.A. (2023). Residual toxicity of calcium carbide-ripened fruits: A review of public health concerns. African Journal of Food Science and Technology, 14(1), 12–19.
Olubiyo, G.T., Obochi, V.U., Edogbanya, P.R.O., Olubiyo, C.K., Iyeh, V.A., Obaje, J.O., Matthew, E.O., & Obaje, M. (2022). Evaluation of the effect of calcium carbide as a ripening agent on the nutritional value and heavy metal content of banana and orange. Nigerian Agricultural Journal, 53(3), 16.
Orok, E., Okeke, U., Williams, T., Adeniyi, F., Ikpe, F., & Mbang, F.O. (2024). Survey of knowledge on calcium carbide use in fruit ripening and associated health risks among fruit sellers and consumers in Ado-Ekiti Nigeria. Discover Public Health, 21, 28. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12982-024-00149-2
Pathak, N., Singh, A., & Singh, S. (2017). Comparative study of calcium carbide and ethylene ripened banana (Musa sapientum L.) fruits for nutritional and physicochemical parameters. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 2(4), 14–19.
Quettier-Deleu, C., Gressier, B., Vasseur, J., Dine, T., Brunet, C., Luyckx, M., Cazin, M., Cazin, J.-C., Bailleul, F., & Trotin, F. (2000). Phenolic compounds and antioxidant activities of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) hulls and flour. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 72(1–2), 35–42.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-8741(00)00196-3.
Rahman, M.A., Rahman, M.M., & Hoque, M.A. (2018). Effect of chemical and natural ripening on the biochemical composition of banana (Musa sapientum). Journal of Food Quality, 2018, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/2971463
Salgado, N., Agudelo, C., & Gómez, R. (2023). Oxalate in foods: Extraction conditions, analytical issues, and dietary implications. Nutrients, 15(3), 551. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15030551
Saranraj, P., & Sivasakthi, S. (2018). Changes in biochemical composition of banana during ripening and storage. International Journal of Microbiology Research, 9(5), 1038–1043.
Seymour, G.B., Østergaard, L., Chapman, N.H., Knapp, S., & Martin, C. (2013). Fruit development and ripening. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64, 219–241. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-arplant-050312-120057
Shahidi, F., & Ambigaipalan, P. (2015). Phenolics and polyphenolics in foods, beverages and spices: Antioxidant activity and health effects – A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 18, 820–897.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2015.06.018.
Singh, R., & Janes, M. (2021). Artificial fruit ripening: Health concerns and regulatory perspectives. Food Control, 125, 107954.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.107954
Singleton, V.L., Orthofer, R., & Lamuela-Raventos, R. M. (1999). Analysis of total phenols and other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of Folin-Ciocalteu reagent. Methods in Enzymology, 299, 152–178.
Sojinu, O.S., Olowookere, M.A., & Akinola, O.O. (2021). The implications of ripening agents on chemical and nutritional characteristics of fruits. Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 8, 123–135.
Stone, H., and Sidel, J.L. (2004). Sensory Evaluation Practices (3rd ed.). Academic Press.
Tanumihardjo, S.A. (2011). Vitamin A: Biomarkers of nutrition for development. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 94(2), 658S–665S.
https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.110.000075
Ugbeni, O.C., Adewale, O.E., & Chukwu, O. (2023). Calcium carbide–ripened plantain induced alterations in biochemical parameters: an experimental study. Journal of Food Safety and Public Health, 12(2), 45–57.
Ugbeni, O.C., Ijah, U.J.J., & Orjiakor, P.I. (2023). Chemical ripening of plantain using calcium carbide: Effects on nutritional composition and potential health hazards. Journal of Food Quality, 2023, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/9925617.
Wills, R.B.H., Golding, J.B., & McGlasson, W.B. (2019). Postharvest: An introduction to the physiology and handling of fruit and vegetables (7th ed.). CABI Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781786391483.0000.
World Health Organization (WHO). (2022). Food safety risk assessment of chemical contaminants in fruits and vegetables. Geneva: WHO Press.
Zou, F., Ojinnaka, C.S., & Onyeka, K. (2022). The valorization of banana by-products: nutritional and functional perspectives. Heliyon, 8(3), e08990. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e08990
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Abraham Olasupo Oladebeye, Aderonke Adenike Oladebeye, Akeem Olalekan Adelu (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
